This paper discusses the role of wafer cleaning in solar cell processing, and addresses its increasing importance with the introduction of new process steps for manufacturing high-efficiency solar cells. The requirements for
cleaning before several process steps, in relationship to the solar cell production sequence, are discussed: frontend- of-the-line (FEOL) cleaning needs to reduce metal surface concentrations by several orders of magnitude (residues from wafer sawing), while back-end-of-the-line (BEOL) cleaning needs to reduce mostly process induced contamination, which tends to be much lower. A ten-step roadmap for process integration and
optimization of new cleaning processes from lab to fab is suggested, which is based on process analytics and simple bath-lifetime simulations. A number of advanced cleaning steps are identified and their suitability for
solar cell mass production is examined. The influence of the different input variables is demonstrated, with a focus on feed and bleed settings. Finally, the need for constant monitoring of cleaning baths is highlighted, and
a device developed by Metrohm for cost-effective on-site monitoring of metallic contamination is discussed.
This paper considers the relative technical and economic performance, for selected sites in Southeast Asia, of PV plants using crystalline and thin-film PV module technology. Technical performance estimates are based on a forensic analysis of in-field data for two grid-connected PV installations in Thailand using polycrystalline and thin-film PV modules. These two case studies help to validate the performance simulation approach for the other considered countries with similar environmental conditions. The case studies show that Mott MacDonald’s yield analysis approach demonstrates acceptable accuracy for energy yield assessment in a grid-connected PV plant, at least under the observed environmental conditions, which are most relevant to Southeast Asia plants with polycrystalline and thin-film PV modules installed. The findings presented in this paper are relevant to project developers and investors who have an interest in selecting solar PV technologies for Southeast Asian regional conditions.
Certain PV modules have begun showing signs of yellowing, a consequence of backsheet deterioration. This phenomenon can impact on power plant performance and safety, and is emerging as a potential problem waiting to happen with low-cost modules. This paper explores the key attributes of backsheets and assesses the relative benefits of the different types of backsheet on the market and the materials used in them. The different tests undertaken for backsheets are reviewed, and arguments are put forward for the requirement of a standardized testing regime for this crucial module component.
The period of ‘profitless prosperity’ in the PV industry is finally at an end. Throughout 2013, despite continued economic woes, the PV industry has continued to expand and finally become a global industry. Market forecasts indicating that the sector could reach its next 100GW milestone in just the next two years suggest the industry is on the cusp of another period of strong growth. All the signs confirm this is the case, with utilization rates at their highest level since 2010, companies reporting full order books well into next year and the first tentative announcements of factory capacity expansions making the headlines.
Recent advances in cadmium telluride (CdTe) research and development have improved the long-term power output degradation and extended reliability test performance of First Solar’s thin-film CdTe PV modules. This paper reviews the characterization results of the new First Solar cell structure with improved back-contact design that better manages the fundamental power-output degradation mechanism. First Solar's proprietary ‘Black’ series module construction significantly enhances the long-term durability and extended test performance of the modules. The accelerated lab-testing methods, field testing and associated analyses are discussed. These advances in the solar cell performance, coupled with upgraded module materials, further substantiate the long-term power-generating capability of First Solar's CdTe PV modules in harsh operating conditions.
Minimizing the breakage rate of silicon wafers and cells during production has been one of the key issues for reliable and productive solar cell manufacturing. However, the root causes of damage or breakage,
as well as the mechanical characteristics of manufacturing processes, are not completely understood. In the study described in this paper the change in mechanical strength and the damaging of wafers and cells was analyzed in an industrial cell manufacturing line in order to detect critical process steps and handling operations in certain processes such as etching, diffusion, screen printing and firing. An analysis and discussion of damage sources is presented which offers more insight than the conventional study
of breakage rate that is mostly performed by cell manufacturers. In a systematic experimental study, 19 different locations in the production line were investigated. The mechanical strength of 800 wafers or cells at different points in the cell line was subsequently determined using the four-line bending test and the statistical parameters for the Weibull distribution. It was discovered that dramatic changes in strength
occur at different process steps because of the change in defect structure; there were also found to be several positions at which no further damage was detected. This method of investigation can therefore be used as
a fingerprint of a cell line in respect of yield and breakage rates. Individual processes can be identified that indicate high damage potential, although the actual breakage could occur in a subsequent process step.
Beyond lowering energy costs and demand charges, Superstorm Sandy demonstrated the frailty of centralized power generation. Building owners/operators throughout the Northeast in the USA are evaluating distributed power generation options for supporting building-critical loads during future grid outages. Those options (many of which also incorporate commercial-scale grid storage solutions) include on-site diesel generators, micro-turbines, fuel cells and solar PV systems. As electrical vehicle (EV) charging is added to the mix, the grid requirements and demand costs will further increase. This article will discuss specific value streams for integrating energy storage with PV for commercial buildings, and technologies - specifically, advanced power converters – that will enable those benefits to be achieved.
As part of the European FP7 R&D project ‘Cu-PV’, the compatibility of copper-electroplated metal wrapthrough (MWT) cells with conductive adhesives has been investigated. The objectives of this project include to reduce, by the use of copper plating, the amount of silver utilized in cell manufacturing, and to demonstrate the compatibility of high-power n-type back-contact module technology with copper-plated cells. The overall goal is to reduce the impact on the environment of cell and module manufacture. MWT module technology as developed by ECN uses conductive adhesive to make the interconnection between cells and a conductive backsheet foil. These adhesives have been proved to result in very reliable modules in the case of cells with fired silver metallization. To determine the compatibility of conductive adhesive with copper-plated cells, component tests were performed, followed by the manufacture of modules with copperplated cells and conductive adhesive interconnections. Climate chamber testing of these modules showed that the adhesive is compatible with the copper-plated cells. The next steps include further optimization of the plating process and additional testing at the module level.
Electrically conductive adhesives (ECAs) are an alternative interconnection technology especially suited to high-efficiency cell concepts with new contact structures. This paper describes the basic principles of this
emerging interconnection technology and discusses the different material types on the market. Mechanical and electrical characterization methods for conductive adhesives are also presented. Results are included from
peel tests, volume and contact resistivity measurements, metallographic investigations, dynamic mechanical analysis and differential scanning calorimetry. Finally, a novel simulation approach for the cure kinetics of
ECAs and arbitrary temperature profiles is briefly described and demonstrated by an example of an epoxy adhesive cure.
Future high efficiency silicon solar cells are expected to be based on n-type monocrystalline wafers. Cell and module photovoltaic conversion efficiency increases are required to contribute to lower cost per watt peak and to reduce balance of systems cost. Past barriers to adoption of n-type silicon cells by a broad base of cell and module suppliers include the higher cost to manufacture a p-type emitter junction and the higher cost of the n-type mono silicon crystal. Technologies to reduce the cost of manufacturing the p-type emitter by diffusion or implantation of boron are being developed in the industry. To reduce the cost and improve further the quality of n-type mono silicon crystal, SunEdison has developed a continuous Czochralski (CCZ) crystal pulling process, based on the technology of Solaicx, acquired in 2010. This CCZ technique allows production of a crystal with much greater resistivity uniformity, with a lower incorporation rate of lifetimereducing metals impurities, and allows crystal oxygen to be selected independent of production batch size. CCZ is expected to reduce n-type crystal cost below that of current p-type mono crystal.
