Technical Papers

Thin-film solar cells (TFSCs) still hold unlocked potential for achieving both high efficiency and low manufacturing costs. The formation of integrated interconnects is a useful way of maintaining high efficiency in small-scale solar cells by their connection in series to form a module. Laser scribing is widely used for scribing a-Si- and CdTe-based TFSCs to form interconnects. The optical properties of the ternary copper-indium-gallium (di)selenide (CIGS) compound are well suited to the solar spectrum, with the potential to achieve a high photoelectrical efficiency. However, since it is a thermally sensitive material, new approaches for the laser-scribing process are required, to eliminate any remaining heating effects. For flexible CIGS solar cells on non-transparent substrates (metal foils or polymer), the scribing process faces additional challenges. This is one reason why ultrashort laser pulses yield better results in terms of scribing quality and selectivity. The modelling of laser energy coupling and an extensive characterization of laser scribes allow approaches to be developed for laser scribing of CIGS solar cells on flexible polymer substrates. The measured high efficiency of the resulting high-speed laser-scribed, integrated CIGS mini-modules proved the capability of this approach.

The development of a cost-effective and industrially up-scalable process for p-type Cz monocrystalline silicon solar cells of the passivated emitter, rear locally diffused (PERL) type requires a careful trade-off between the potential benefits that novel process steps can deliver (in terms of improved efficiency and/or process control) and the additional costs involved. The approach chosen by Photovoltech is to limit as much as possible the number of PERL-specific process steps and to fine-tune the processes already in use for our standard full Al back-surface field (Al-BSF) technology in order to satisfy the more stringent requirements of PERL technology. Some of the results of this development are reported in this paper. In particular, the impact of different local BSF pastes on our proprietary extended laser ablation (ELA) rear-contacting technique is investigated, as well as the effect of the wafer resistivity and emitter diffusion/oxidation processes on cell performance. This paper also reports the results of large-batch experiments in which the capability of our optimized PERL process was tested against that of a standard full Al-BSF process. An average efficiency of 19.5% and a top efficiency of 19.7% were demonstrated.

The passivated emitter and rear cell (PERC) is considered to be the next generation of industrial-type screen-printed silicon solar cell. However, only a few deposition methods currently exist for rear passivation layers which meet both the high-throughput and low-cost requirements of the PV industry while demonstrating high-quality surface passivation properties. This paper presents an evaluation and the optimization of a novel deposition technique for AlOx passivation layers, applying an inductively coupled plasma (ICP) plasma-enhanced chemical vapour deposition (PECVD) process. High deposition rates of up to 5nm/s, as well as excellent surface recombination velocities below 10cm/s after firing, are possible using this ICP AlOx deposition process. When applied to PERC solar cells the ICP AlOx layer is capped with a PECVD SiNy layer. Independently confirmed conversion efficiencies of up to 20.1% are achieved for large-area 15.6cm x 15.6cm PERC solar cells with screen-printed metal contacts and ICP AlOx/SiNy rear side passivation on standard boron-doped Czochralski-grown silicon wafers. The internal quantum efficiency (IQE) reveals an effective rear surface recombination velocity Srear of 110±30cm/s and an internal rear reflectance Rb of 91±1%, which demonstrates the excellent rear surface passivation of the ICP AlOx/SiNy layer stack. Currently, the ICP AlOx deposition process is being transferred from the ISFH laboratory-type tool to the Singular production tool of Singulus Technologies in order to commercialize this novel deposition process during 2012.

This paper reviews metal wrap through (MWT) solar cell and module technology. As MWT solar cells and modules have received more and more attention in recent years, many highly efficient MWT cell types have been presented by research institutes and industry and are summarized herein. The MWT cell structure benefits from a reduced silver consumption compared with a conventional H-pattern cell, and its realization can be easily combined with novel metallization technologies such as dispensing or stencil printing. The introduction of a rear-surface passivation into the MWT structure is feasible with the high-performance MWT (HIP-MWT) concept developed at Fraunhofer ISE. The resulting fabrication sequence includes only one additional process step – laser drilling of vias – compared with an H-pattern passivated emitter and rear cell (PERC). Furthermore, the synergistic effects of MWT and PERC boost the conversion efficiency gain of MWT-PERC-type cells beyond the expected sum of what could be achieved individually from these two approaches. According to the calculations made by Fraunhofer ISE, conversion efficiencies of up to 21.5% (annealed) are feasible for p-type Cz silicon MWT-PERC cells. Because via metallization is one of the challenges in the fabrication of MWT cells, different via pastes are investigated with regard to their series resistance and contact behaviour. With cell-to-module losses in conversion efficiency of only 0.9% abs., both the interconnector-based MWT module technology and the conductive backsheet concept show promising results.

This paper presents ISFH’s recent developments and advances in the field of back-contacted silicon solar cells. The efficiency potential of back-contacted solar cells is very high; nevertheless, in industrial production, back-contacted solar cells are decidedly the minority. In the field of back-contacted solar cells, ISFH has developed several cell concepts and new processing techniques, such as laser ablation for silicon structuring, contact opening through passivation layers, and hole drilling for emitter-wrap-through (EWT) solar cells. The latest results are presented regarding ISFH’s work on back-junction back-contacted solar cells and EWT solar cells, as well as on back-contacted solar cells employing an amorphous/crystalline silicon heterojunction. Also discussed are the advances in high-throughput evaporation of aluminium as a low-cost option for the metallization of back-contacted solar cells. Finally, a novel, silver-free cell interconnection technique is presented, which is based on the direct laser welding of a highly conductive, low-cost Al foil, as a cell interconnect, onto the rear side of back-contacted solar cells.

In slurry-based wafering of silicon bricks using multi-wire saws, the slurry is subject to significant evolution with time as the grits become worn and the silicon kerf accumulates. A good understanding of this evolution would allow wafer producers to make better-informed decisions on when and how to replenish slurry during wafering. This paper summarizes certain important slurry properties and presents some experimental results regarding their evolution. Sampling the slurry at the front and rear of silicon bricks during wafering has allowed the effect of a single pass through the sawing channel to be studied. The wear on the slurry grit is interpreted in terms of identifying what portion of the particle-size distribution plays the most critical role in wafering, and how this critical region changes as the slurry ages. It is found that in a relatively fresh slurry, the particles around the median size and slightly larger are the most active, while particles more than a few μm below the median play only a small part. As the slurry ages, the active region of the particle-size distribution becomes narrower, and shifts towards larger particles even though there are fewer such particles available. This leads to less slurry–brick interaction and poorer material removal properties.

The cleaning performance of three different fluorine-containing precursors – sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), nitrogen trifluoride (NF3) and molecular fluorine (F2) – is compared from theoretical, experimental and commercial points of view. Experiments were performed using an Oerlikon Solar KAI Gen 5 (1300mm x 1100mm) R&D platform. For the experiments with F2, an ‘on-site/on-demand’ generator from The Linde Group was installed at the Oerlikon Solar facility in Trübbach, Switzerland. The SF6-based cleaning process was found to be up to 75% less efficient than the corresponding NF3 or F2 process. A comparison between NF3 and F2 indicates that a significantly larger process window is available for reactor cleaning when F2 is used in place of NF3. This leads to both time and gas mass savings, improving productivity and bringing down the cost of ownership of the reactor cleaning process. As a direct consequence, Oerlikon Solar has decided to transfer the process to their production KAI MT plasma-enhanced chemical vapour deposition (PECVD) platforms.

With current state-of-the-art PV module tests stipulating only a static mechanical load test in accordance with IEC 61215 and IEC 61646 standards, hardly any fatigue stressing is carried out on cells, cell connectors or rigid component parts such as the glass or framing. This paper presents research on dynamic load testing of PV modules and discusses reliability aspects of these essential requirements that must be considered in future standardization work.

Wet chemical process equipment is widely used in industrial solar cell production, and inline etching systems in particular have attracted more and more attention since their introduction 10 years ago. The horizontal wafer transport within these systems has made it possible to think about single-side wafer treatments even for wet chemical process applications. Since its market introduction in 2004, the chemical edge isolation process based on the single-side removal of the parasitic emitter at the rear side of the solar cells has gained an increasing share of the market in comparison to competing technologies that use laser techniques. However, stabilization and control of such a process under mass production conditions remains challenging. The introduction of new high-efficiency cell concepts involving passivated rear sides will increase the importance of single-side wafer treatments, as the final solar cell performance is significantly affected not only by the complete removal of the parasitic emitter but also by an ideally polished surface on the rear side of the wafer.

This paper presents Calyxo’s recent advances in product design that have resulted in independently confirmed peak aperture-area efficiencies of 13.4% for modules and 16.2% for cells. Some insight is given into a suitable product design for achieving the highest reliability possible, even in hot climates such as Australia, with no signs of degradation during the first three years of deployment in the field. These technical advances and the midterm production-cost target of US$0.50/Wp allow a forecast levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) of under US$0.10/KWh, especially in sunny regions of the world.